Objective 78: Gross and Histological parts of alimentary canal in terms of structure and function

As you can see in the pictures they show what the GI tract consists of.  The histology portion is something I can not get with. I am just not good with the microscopes my attention span is zero when it comes to looking at the microscopes.

Objective 71: How spermatatozoa moves through the female reproductve tract

The textbook was what I used to figure out how spermatozoa moved through the female reproductive tract. I found the picture below on a site that shows the path of the sperm as it traveled through the female reproductive tract. The textbook taught me that spermatozoa consists of a head, mid piece, and tail. The head of the sperm contains compacted DNA and an outer helmet like layer called the acrosome that helps pierce the egg for fertilization. The mid piece contains the mitochondria, which provides the ATP needed for the movements of the tail to jet the sperm along. The tail allows the sperm to move easily and help it to reach the egg.

Objective 72: Evaluate fertilization in terms of evolutionary fitness

I really do not undertand this objective but I will chime in on what I think it is about.  Women usually increase their evolutionary fitness by having children with the creme of the crop males. Men usually increase their fitness by having sex often to increase the chances that their sperm will encounter the goodies. Consequently, females have often evolved traits for choosing the fathers of their children, while males have often evolved traits for gaining access to females and their goodies.  I do not know I am just talking out my anal sphincter.

Objective 35: Describe the formation and flow of lymph

I can not say it enough but I hate the lymphatic system. The textbook was my guide in learning that lymph originates as plasma, which is the fluid portion of blood. The arterial blood that flows out of the heart slows as it moves through a capillary bed (see figure above). This slowing allows some plasma to leave the arterioles and flow into the tissues where it becomes extracellular fluid, This  fluid delivers nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to the cells. As this fluid leaves the cells, it takes with it cellular waste products and protein cells. Approximately 90 percent of this tissue fluid flows into the venules. Here it enters the venous circulation as plasma and continues in the circulatory system. The remaining 10 percent of the fluid that is left behind is now known as lymph.  The bloodstream is pumped by the heart. It circulates throughout the body and is cleansed by being filtered by the kidneys. The lymphatic system does not have a pump to aid in its flow, instead this system is designed so that lymph only flows upward through the body traveling from the hands and feet and upward through the body toward the neck.  As it travels through the body, lymph passes through lymph nodes where it is filtered. At the base of the neck, the lymph enters the subclavian veins and once again becomes plasma in the bloodstream.

Objective 40: Cellular and non-cellular immunity

Non-cellular Immunity
Humoral Immunity aka non-cellular immunity is the world of antibodies and non-cellular means of killing foreign agents within the body. An antibody is generally specific to the thing being attacked. It's called having antigen-specificity. For example, you never or I have never heard of anyone getting chicken pox twice. Because, either through vaccination or actually having the disease, you made antibodies to the specific virus causing chicken pox. The chicken pox virus was the "antigen" which signaled the making of the antibody which was made against only that virus. Finally, long lasting cells inside your body kept that specific memory alive so that antibodies to chicken pox could always be created immediately just in case your exposed later in life. It's a pretty good system; we have antibodies against practically anything we have ever been exposed to and fought off in our entire life.  

Cell mediated
Cell mediated immunity begins where everything in the immune system begins-in the bone marrow. The bone marrow makes nearly all of the components of the blood. Bone marrow-based stem cells form two kinds of lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes. I just read my textbook one night and try to absorb everything I could.  I remember this was a hard concept in lecture to follow it seemed as though no one knew anything about these two immunities.

Objective 68 & 70: How chemical buffers interact to protect against lethal changes in pH & Recognize how the lungs and kidneys interact to protect the body against lethal changes in pH

Understanding the job and function of the kidneys and lungs helped me to achieve this objective.  Knowing already that the lungs help to maintain the body's pH by exhaling carbon dioxide during respiration and the kidneys excrete wastes.  This video helped put it in prospective for the kidneys.

Objective 46 & 47: Relate breathing to cellular respiration & Decide how arterial carbon dioxide concentrations affect ventilation

I was taught about breathing from the age of 7-9 in science class.  I learned what cellular respiration was in BIO 100 from my lovely teacher Mrs. Gess because she brought up the subject on multiple occasion throughout BIO 100 plus there was a whole chapter about it and fermentation.  Cellular respiration would in fact pop up during BIO 210 & 211. Breathing is inhaling of oxygen and exhaling of carbon dioxide through the lungs.  Cellualr respiration is relating to breathing because a cell exchanges two gases with its surroundings during cellular respiration.  The cell takes in oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide. The bloodstream keeps cells supplied with oxygen and carries away carbon dioxide.

Objective 26: The cardiac cycle as it relates to the electrical conducting system

This video helped me understand the processes that the heart went through in each stage of the cardiac cycle. 

Objective 9: Compare and contrast bonds types

Lord have mercy, bonds have been drummed in my head through my BIO career and honestly I really do not want to talk about it but since it is an objective I have to. 
A ionic bond are formed between a metal and non-metal due to the greedy-grabby nature of the non-metal. Covalent bonds are formed two non-metals and have equal sharing.
Hydrogen bonds are the weakest of the bonds and are polar covalent and share bonds but do not share them equally.

Objective 25: Physiology of heart and blood vessels

I have accomplished this objective in a couple ways, first by reading my textbook and by going to this website. http://www.virtualmedicalcentre.com/anatomy.asp?sid=16#C6
Blood vessels are essentially tubes that carry blood, whether by veins or arteries.  The heart pumps  oxygen rich blood to every living cell in the body via the blood vessels.

Objective 60: Describe enzymatic and bicarbonate content in pancreatic juices

This chart highlights the pancreatic enzymes that play a part in digestion of these food sources such as pancreatic amylase that works to breakdown carbohydrates, Trypsin that works to break down proteins, pancreatic lipase that works on fats, and pancreatic ribonuclease and deoxyribnuclease that breakdown amino acids.  All of these enzymes are secreted from the pancreas in an inactive form and are activated in the small intestine.  This was a very helpful visual aid for me. 

Objective 53: Dalton's law, Boyles law

This has got be the most confusing objective to me because really I do not understand it at all.  Honestly I really can not say I have learned anything.  But I will try to break it down on what I have researched I can not say learned but researched.  I understand movement of the respiratory gases is due to diffusion. Diffusion results from a concentration gradient which is expressed for gases as the difference in partial pressures.  I think Boyle's Law relates to inspiration and expiration in that these two processes are stimulated by differences in  atmospheric pressure and internal pressures.  Dalton's law is that the composition of each gas does not effect the pressure.

Objective 73: Compare and contrast oogenesis and spermatogenesis

Through my textbook I learned that like spermatogenesis, oogenesis involves the formation of haploid cells from an original diploid cell, called a primary oocyte, through meiosis.  But the major difference is that oogenesis leads to 1 perfect egg cell and spermatogenesis leads to 4 sperm cells.

Objective 61: Chemical forms in which major food classes are absorbed

This chart in my text book helped because it gave a good description of how the major food classes are broken down into chemical forms. I know this is a bland entry but honestly I am running out of juice doing all of this typing.

Objective 36 & 42: Pathogen types and outlining how the body protects itself & Distinguish Innate Immunity from Acquired Immunity

I know about four or five pathogen types such as viral, fungal, bacterial, parasitic, and prionic.  I have learned from my teacher and the book that our body has defenses. I found a neat link that details the three defenses and it was extraordinary in helping me learn about non-specific and specific immunity.  The link is http://www.kirkwood.edu/pdf/uploaded/695/immune_and_lymphatic2.pdf

Innate Immunity 
To achieve this objective I mainly used my book to learn about innate aka nonspecific immunity.  What I took from the book is that innate immunity is like being deployed and going to war.  First you have your first fleet of men going out and handling their business against invaders, but then the first fleet could not handle the enemy so here comes backup. 
Backup is heating up everybody.


Acquired Immunity
Acquired immunity is like special ops, when all else fails they are called in and they will try their hardest to defeat the enemy.  If they can not get them nothing else can.  That is how I interpreted and learned about this subject.  Thinking about the army and what they are going up against.

Objective 59: Appreciate the microscopic anatomy of the liver

As I learned in lab, the microscopic anatomy of the liver has hepatocytes and sinusoids. This website is good to view before a practical, because they have a variety of slides to learn from.
http://www.histol.chuvashia.com/atlas-en/digestive-03-en.htm

Objective 32: Identify major veins draining into the superior and inferior vena cavae

As stated in Objective 31 the cardiovascular system to me is a beast and to cope with not pulling my hair out.  This web page helped me out on this objective. This website is great because not only does it tells you the veins that drains both the superior and inferior vena cavae but it also tells you the location the veins drains.

http://www.ichristianschool.org/anatomy/3rdQuarter/anatomy21.htm

Objective 2: Apply critical and integrated thinking skills

In labs I would say this particular objective came in handy because you always have to think when you are doing an experiment, and you get help from others to say what there views or opinion or knowledge is on the lab or questions.  Plus during BIO 100 I had to do a two part lab practical.  One part was written the other was your typical practical.  The written part consisted of making a lab report on basically a little bit of information that was in the pamphlet she gave.  I would say me getting a 73/75 on it showed I applied critical and integrated thinking skills.  Here's a note my lab teacher had me thinking all the time because she would always say "how do you think" or "why do you think" certain things do the things they do etc.

Objective 8: Demonstrate correct care and safe use of instruments, equipment, and living organisms

I really do not know how to go about this objective.  There are no digital artifacts I found useful.  Only thing I can say is that the teacher never said anything to me about not using tthe equipment or instruments incorrectly.  We did not use any living organisms that I can recall.  When using the microscopes I held it by the the neck and the base.  When dissecting the cat, I used gloves, apron, the right tools, dissecting tray and goggles.  I never broke anything so I say I did everything the correct way whenever I stepped foot in the lab.

Objective 43 & 44: Describing anatomy and histology of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs & Locate and identify the functions of each respiratory system structure

NOSE
There seems to be alot going on in the nose.  The anatomy of the nose through my understanding is this, the naval cavity is found in the nose and joins the pharynx.  The nostrils are the external openings of the nasal cavity and the chonchae are the posterior openings from the nasal cavity to the pharynx.  The vestibule is the anterior part of the cavity, and the nasal septum divides the cavity into 2 parts.
The histology of the nose is that certain parts of the nasal cavity is lined with stratified squamous epithelial cells, which I believe the vestibule is lines with it.  The mucous membrane that lines the nasal cavity has pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.

PHARYNX
Only thing I can say about the anatomy of the pharynx is that I know it is divided into 3 parts:  Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, and Laryngopharynx.  What I know or should I say what I think I know about the naso pharynx is that it is the superior region of the pharynx and is lined with mucous membrane.  I know that food, drink, and air pass throught the oropharynx and that it is lined with stratified squamous epithelium. Only thing I know or really care to know about the laryngopharynx is that it is lined with squamous epithelium.

LARYNX
I do know a great deal about the larynx's anatomy.  I know that it consists of nine cartilages and that six of the cartilages are shared and 3 are not.  The Adam's apple or thyroid cartilage is the largest of the cartliages.  The unshared cartliage is the cricoid which form the base of the larynx and that all the other cartilage lays on it.

TRACHEA
I love the trachea because to me it is the easiest to identify in dissection.  It is a tube that has c-shaped rings of cartilage.  The rings do not wrap fully around.  The posterior wall contains no cartilage.  This is all I can say about the anatomy of the trachea.  Histologically the trachea consists of dense regular connective and smooth muscle tissue.  It is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.

BRONCHI
I really did not get a feel for the bronchi because to me there was too little information that I gathered about it.  I will say though that wikipedia did help me out.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchi

LUNGS
I learned that the lungs have three lobes on the right and two on the left.  The left lung has the cardiac notch so that it can house the heart.  For the histology of the lung I went to this website http://bio.rutgers.edu/~gb102/lab_10/1001am.html.
Everything here I absorbed from my textbook and websites.

Objective 39: Why development of self-tolerance is important

By reading my textbook and actually paying attention in lecture.  I learned that self-tolerance is where the body does not mount an immune response to self-antigens.   If in fact the immune system responded and attacked "self" an auto-immune disease would occur.  I actually have a patient with Multiple Sclerosis which is an auto-immune disease.  Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a debilitating disease in which your body's immune system eats away at the protective sheath that covers your nerves. This interferes with the communication between your brain and the rest of your body.  My patient is only 31 and this disease has totally debilatated her.  She can not talk, walk, move it really breaks my heart because she is such a nice positive upbeat woman.  I would really love to see her get up and walk and have a life.  I do not have a digital artifact because I see no barrings for none.

Objective 6: Use written and oral communication skills to explain scientific concepts

I think this blog will attest my written communication skills. This blog is about reflecting on how I learned the objectives throughout this blog.  I know some of the objectives are short and direct and in my opinion to the point.  Also the purpose is not to teach but to reflect.  However, in reflecting sometimes I believe I have fallen into teaching. Honestly though on some of these objectives you can not help but teach because that is the only way to get your point across on how you learn.  I really do not see myself possibly using oral communication.  I left that for my teacher, she has oral communication on lock.

Objective 45: Characterize neuronal network that controls respiration

Figure 21.23 on page 731 of the Anatomy & Physiology textbook helped me to understand that the neuronal network that controls breathing stems from the pons and the medulla of the brain. The book gave a brief description of the three different respiratory centers; The pontine that works to smooth breathing patterns, The ventral that controls the rhythm of respiration, and the dorsal that receives sensory input.

Objective 62: Describe the external and internal gross renal system anatomy

Objective 63 & 66: Describe structure and function of renal corpuscles and renal tubules & 3 basic tasks performed by nephrons and collecting ducts and where it occurs

Since the online lecture was boring me I went on youtube and found this great video that taught me about the nephrons three basic functions. The nephrons functions are filtration, secretion, and reabsorption. The collecting duct job is to collect all materials that have not come back to the blood through tubular membranes. This material will leave the body as pee aka urine. The renal corpuscle handles filtration. The glomerulus filters protein and cells from the blood, and then all other blood components go into the Bowman's capsule. Secretion and reabsorbtion goes down in the tubule. The semi-permeable membranes surrounding the tubule allow certain things to be reabsorbed back into the blood.
 
I found this video on Youtube that was great in describing the structure and functions of the renal corpuscles and renal tubules.  This video also worked well for objective 66.  This video gives good information about the functions of the nephrons and collecting ducts.

Objective 64: How oxygen and carbon dioxide is transported

These videos helped me to understand both oxygen and carbon dioxide transport through the body.  I remember having a discussion in lab about this topic and at first I thought I knew it all but then there was talk about bicarbonate.  What I learned is that carbon dioxide produced in the tissue cells diffuses into the blood plasma. The largest fraction of carbon dioxide diffuses into the red blood cells. The carbon dioxide in the red blood cells is transported as: dissolved CO2, combined with hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate.  Bicarbonate
diffuses out of the red blood cels into the plasma in venous bood and visa versa in arterial blood. Chloride ion always diffuses in an opposite direction of bicarbonate ion in order to maintain a charge balance. This is referred to as the "chloride shift".
In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into the blood because the venous blood has a lower partial pressure. The oxygen dissolves in the blood.

Objective 69: How water excess and dehydration affect kidney function

On page 873 figure 25.7 details water excess and dehydration.  I use this to try and relate it to the kidney's function.  I know fluid excess is less common than dehydration. This is because the kidneys are very effective at compensating for excessive fluid intake, by producing more urine. This is one of the main functions of the kidneys. When the kidneys are not functioning properly, however, this usually leads to excessive fluid retention. In the case of dehydration, the volume of fluid in the intravascular space decreases, and blood pressure may fall. This can decrease blood flow to the kidneys, and like any organ with a decreased blood flow; it has the potential to fail to do its job.

Objective 52 & 65: Kidney's involvement in blood pressure and blood volume regulation & State the importance of juxtaglomerular cells in secretion of renin

Since there was no in class lecture on the urinary system.  I basicaly ignored the onine lecture ecause it was boring and making my head hurt.  To help me some what understand objective 52 I used figure 24.12 in my textbook on page 849.  It helped in describing the process that affect blood pressure and blood volume. One way in which the kidneys maintain blood pressure is through the regulation of the volume of blood in the body. As the American Heart Association explains, one of the major roles of the kidneys is maintaining the proper levels of electrolytes (such as sodium and potassium) in the body. The amount of electrolytes in the body influences the amount of fluid in the body. When electrolyte levels are high, the body retains more water, which in turn increases the volume of the blood. More blood volume results in higher blood pressure. That is why the kidneys maintain blood pressure by indirectly controlling the amount of blood in the body.  The kidneys also regulate blood pressure hormonally. In order to do this, the kidneys must directly watch the blood pressure, which they do by measuring the amount of blood flow that the kidneys receive. This is where objective 65 comes in.  The juxtaglomerular cells are special renal cells. These cells are located in the arteries that feed into the kidneys. When blood flow to the kidney is reduced, a hormone called renin is excreted. This system can inadvertently lead to high blood pressure if the arteries leading to the kidney get narrowed because the juxtaglomerular cells will see it as low blood pressure even though blood pressure throughout the body is normal.

Objective 23 & 24: Major vessels entering and leaving the heart & Structures of the heart

I found a great website that got me in tune about the structure of the heart and the major vessels entering and leaving the heart.  The website is http://www.skillstat.com/heartscape/basicFacts.htm#BasicFacts
There are just too many structures of the heart for me to detail so I think this website sums it up quite nicely because it really helped me learn it.

Also the above diagram shows the major vessels entering and leaving the heart.  The left side pumps oxygenated blood and the right deoxygenated blood.  This diagram was found here. http://www.ukdivers.net/physiology/heart.htm 

Objective 56: Differences in Metabolic and respiratory acidosis and alkalosis

How I learned was thinking of the words hypo and hyper.  I associated hypo with acidosis because first off an acid on the pH scale is low and secondly during respiratory acidosis your breathing slows and gets shallow.  I equated hyper with alkalosis because on the pH scale alkaline is high and during respiratory alkalosis your breathing  speeds up and causes hyperventilation.

This chart in my textbook on page 886 helped me a lot on this objective. It was great because not only does it tells you what each acid-base imbalance is. It also tells you the cause and the ramifactions of each. 

Objective 33: Skeletal muscle contraction role in venous valves in returning blood to heart

Figure 18.7 from my textbook I think is a good representation for objective 33 because it basically spells it out.  I remember going through this in lecture. We talked about during exercise, muscles contract. The intramuscular pressure exerted on the veins by the surrounding muscle pushes blood through the one-way valves of the veins, returning it to the heart. The pumping action keeps blood from pooling in the lower limbs, and people that stand still for long periods of time can experience little venous return to the heart and low blood pressure leading to dizziness or fainting.

Objective 14: Location, Histology, hormones, and function of some glands

Location and Histology
I learned about this objective in my textbook because it was easy to understand and it laid out it for you.  The book to me almost had it step by step.  Just by reading  about the thyroid gland the first thing that is mentioned in the book was its Location which is anterior to the neck, just below the larynx.  Histologically it is composed of spherical hollow follicles which are formed by either cuboidal or squamous epithelial cells.  I learned from the book that the parathyroid glands are behind the thyroid gland almost hidden from view.  Histology of the parathyroid tissues are often found with the thyroid tissue. The chief cells that make up this gland are smaller and darker staining than of the thyroid. The adrenal glands I did not need any introduction on because I knew they were perched on top of the kidneys.  The histology of the adrenal glands are that they are encased in a connective tissue capsule.  Also I already knew about its cortex and medulla.  The pancreas I would say is found behind the stomach.  It's histology would be the islets of Langerhans.  The ovaries are located in the lateral wall of the pelvis.  I learned that it has a lot of histology just to name a few it has follicular cells, granulosa cells just to name a couple. The pineal gland is a part of the epithalamus.  Thymus is located in front of the heart and behind the sternum.  The chart below as you can see helped with the hormones and functions of each of the glands.

Endocrine System Gland	Hormone Produced	Endocrine System Function
Pituitary gland	Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)	Its primary function is to help the kidneys to retain water in the body.
	Corticotropin (ACTH)	These hormones are there for regulating the hormones of the adrenal glands.
	Human growth hormone	As the name suggests, it is associated with the growth and development of the body. It is also known to encourage the production of protein.
	Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone	Important functions like the production of sperm and semen, and menstruation, are looked after by this particular hormone. Secondary sexual characteristics such as hair growth pattern, muscles, texture and thickness of the skin, nature of the voice, etc.
	Oxytocin	Helps contraction of the uterus muscles and mammary ducts in the breast.
	Prolactin	The process of milk production in the mammary glands is carried out by this hormone.
	Thyroid-stimulating hormone	Again, as the name suggests, this hormone is responsible for the functions of the hormones of the thyroid gland.
Thyroid gland	Thyroid hormone	The body's metabolic rate is controlled by this hormone.
	Calcitonin	It regulates calcium balance in species other than humans. Studies are still in progress to find its function in the human species.
Pancreas	Glucagon	The blood sugar level raises with its help.
	Insulin	It helps in lowering the blood sugar level. Apart from this, metabolism of sugar, protein, and fat are also carried out with its help.
Adrenal glands	Aldosterone	Responsible for maintaining the salt ans water balance in the body.
	Cortisol	The functions which regulate the blood sugar level, blood pressure, and muscle strength in the body is controlled by the cortisol.
	Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)	It is related to the immune system, bones growth and also to the mood of an individual.
	Epinephrine and norepinephrine	The nervous system is associated with it.
Hypothalamus	Hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)	It is known as the growth hormone.
	Somatostatin	It works by regulating the endocrine system.
	Dopamine	It inhibits the release of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Parathyroid glands	Parathyroid hormone	Calcium and phosphorus are eliminated from the body with the help of this hormone, which is also responsible for bone formation.
Pineal gland	Melatonin	Maintains the body's circadian rhythm, apart from what has been mentioned in the earlier segment.
Ovaries	Estrogen	The female sexual characteristics and the functions reproductive system are influenced by the secretion of this hormone.
	Progesterone	It plays vital roles in pregnancy. For instance, it helps in preparing the lining of the uterus for the fertilized egg to get implanted.
Testes	Testosterone	Men's sexual characteristics and the nature of the reproductive system, involve the secretion of this hormone.

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/endocrine-glands-and-functions.html

Objective 54: How erythropoietin regulates red blood cell,production

How I learned about this objective was from my textbook.  It has about three paragraphs laying out what erythropoietin is and does.  Erythropoietin has its primary effect on red blood cells by promoting red blood cell survival through protecting these cells from apoptosis.  Under hypoxic conditions, the kidney will produce and secrete erythropoietin to increase the production of red blood cells.  Erythropoietin stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. A rise in red cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.  As the main source of red blood cell production, EPO’s major functions are to:
Promote the development of red blood cells.  Also to initiate the synthesis of hemoglobin, the molecule within red cells that transports oxygen.  This diagram from my textbook was a great tool for me to accomplish this objective.

Objective 41: Summarize Development and Maturation of B&T lymphocytes

I really did not grasp the concept of the B or T lymphocyte.  I will say that what I will always remember is where both of them matures because Mrs. Gess brought it up loads of times.  I could be sleeping and I would still here that the B lymphocytes matures in the bone marrow and the T lymphocytes mature in the thymus. During lecture I also understood that the lymphocytes protects our body from pathogens through humoral and cellular responses.  The video above helped me sort of grasp the B lymphocytes role.  The video below helped with the T lymphocytes.