Objective 52 & 65: Kidney's involvement in blood pressure and blood volume regulation & State the importance of juxtaglomerular cells in secretion of renin

Since there was no in class lecture on the urinary system.  I basicaly ignored the onine lecture ecause it was boring and making my head hurt.  To help me some what understand objective 52 I used figure 24.12 in my textbook on page 849.  It helped in describing the process that affect blood pressure and blood volume. One way in which the kidneys maintain blood pressure is through the regulation of the volume of blood in the body. As the American Heart Association explains, one of the major roles of the kidneys is maintaining the proper levels of electrolytes (such as sodium and potassium) in the body. The amount of electrolytes in the body influences the amount of fluid in the body. When electrolyte levels are high, the body retains more water, which in turn increases the volume of the blood. More blood volume results in higher blood pressure. That is why the kidneys maintain blood pressure by indirectly controlling the amount of blood in the body.  The kidneys also regulate blood pressure hormonally. In order to do this, the kidneys must directly watch the blood pressure, which they do by measuring the amount of blood flow that the kidneys receive. This is where objective 65 comes in.  The juxtaglomerular cells are special renal cells. These cells are located in the arteries that feed into the kidneys. When blood flow to the kidney is reduced, a hormone called renin is excreted. This system can inadvertently lead to high blood pressure if the arteries leading to the kidney get narrowed because the juxtaglomerular cells will see it as low blood pressure even though blood pressure throughout the body is normal.

Objective 23 & 24: Major vessels entering and leaving the heart & Structures of the heart

I found a great website that got me in tune about the structure of the heart and the major vessels entering and leaving the heart.  The website is http://www.skillstat.com/heartscape/basicFacts.htm#BasicFacts
There are just too many structures of the heart for me to detail so I think this website sums it up quite nicely because it really helped me learn it.

Also the above diagram shows the major vessels entering and leaving the heart.  The left side pumps oxygenated blood and the right deoxygenated blood.  This diagram was found here. http://www.ukdivers.net/physiology/heart.htm 

Objective 56: Differences in Metabolic and respiratory acidosis and alkalosis

How I learned was thinking of the words hypo and hyper.  I associated hypo with acidosis because first off an acid on the pH scale is low and secondly during respiratory acidosis your breathing slows and gets shallow.  I equated hyper with alkalosis because on the pH scale alkaline is high and during respiratory alkalosis your breathing  speeds up and causes hyperventilation.

This chart in my textbook on page 886 helped me a lot on this objective. It was great because not only does it tells you what each acid-base imbalance is. It also tells you the cause and the ramifactions of each. 

Objective 33: Skeletal muscle contraction role in venous valves in returning blood to heart

Figure 18.7 from my textbook I think is a good representation for objective 33 because it basically spells it out.  I remember going through this in lecture. We talked about during exercise, muscles contract. The intramuscular pressure exerted on the veins by the surrounding muscle pushes blood through the one-way valves of the veins, returning it to the heart. The pumping action keeps blood from pooling in the lower limbs, and people that stand still for long periods of time can experience little venous return to the heart and low blood pressure leading to dizziness or fainting.

Objective 14: Location, Histology, hormones, and function of some glands

Location and Histology
I learned about this objective in my textbook because it was easy to understand and it laid out it for you.  The book to me almost had it step by step.  Just by reading  about the thyroid gland the first thing that is mentioned in the book was its Location which is anterior to the neck, just below the larynx.  Histologically it is composed of spherical hollow follicles which are formed by either cuboidal or squamous epithelial cells.  I learned from the book that the parathyroid glands are behind the thyroid gland almost hidden from view.  Histology of the parathyroid tissues are often found with the thyroid tissue. The chief cells that make up this gland are smaller and darker staining than of the thyroid. The adrenal glands I did not need any introduction on because I knew they were perched on top of the kidneys.  The histology of the adrenal glands are that they are encased in a connective tissue capsule.  Also I already knew about its cortex and medulla.  The pancreas I would say is found behind the stomach.  It's histology would be the islets of Langerhans.  The ovaries are located in the lateral wall of the pelvis.  I learned that it has a lot of histology just to name a few it has follicular cells, granulosa cells just to name a couple. The pineal gland is a part of the epithalamus.  Thymus is located in front of the heart and behind the sternum.  The chart below as you can see helped with the hormones and functions of each of the glands.

Endocrine System Gland	Hormone Produced	Endocrine System Function
Pituitary gland	Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)	Its primary function is to help the kidneys to retain water in the body.
	Corticotropin (ACTH)	These hormones are there for regulating the hormones of the adrenal glands.
	Human growth hormone	As the name suggests, it is associated with the growth and development of the body. It is also known to encourage the production of protein.
	Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone	Important functions like the production of sperm and semen, and menstruation, are looked after by this particular hormone. Secondary sexual characteristics such as hair growth pattern, muscles, texture and thickness of the skin, nature of the voice, etc.
	Oxytocin	Helps contraction of the uterus muscles and mammary ducts in the breast.
	Prolactin	The process of milk production in the mammary glands is carried out by this hormone.
	Thyroid-stimulating hormone	Again, as the name suggests, this hormone is responsible for the functions of the hormones of the thyroid gland.
Thyroid gland	Thyroid hormone	The body's metabolic rate is controlled by this hormone.
	Calcitonin	It regulates calcium balance in species other than humans. Studies are still in progress to find its function in the human species.
Pancreas	Glucagon	The blood sugar level raises with its help.
	Insulin	It helps in lowering the blood sugar level. Apart from this, metabolism of sugar, protein, and fat are also carried out with its help.
Adrenal glands	Aldosterone	Responsible for maintaining the salt ans water balance in the body.
	Cortisol	The functions which regulate the blood sugar level, blood pressure, and muscle strength in the body is controlled by the cortisol.
	Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)	It is related to the immune system, bones growth and also to the mood of an individual.
	Epinephrine and norepinephrine	The nervous system is associated with it.
Hypothalamus	Hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)	It is known as the growth hormone.
	Somatostatin	It works by regulating the endocrine system.
	Dopamine	It inhibits the release of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Parathyroid glands	Parathyroid hormone	Calcium and phosphorus are eliminated from the body with the help of this hormone, which is also responsible for bone formation.
Pineal gland	Melatonin	Maintains the body's circadian rhythm, apart from what has been mentioned in the earlier segment.
Ovaries	Estrogen	The female sexual characteristics and the functions reproductive system are influenced by the secretion of this hormone.
	Progesterone	It plays vital roles in pregnancy. For instance, it helps in preparing the lining of the uterus for the fertilized egg to get implanted.
Testes	Testosterone	Men's sexual characteristics and the nature of the reproductive system, involve the secretion of this hormone.

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/endocrine-glands-and-functions.html

Objective 54: How erythropoietin regulates red blood cell,production

How I learned about this objective was from my textbook.  It has about three paragraphs laying out what erythropoietin is and does.  Erythropoietin has its primary effect on red blood cells by promoting red blood cell survival through protecting these cells from apoptosis.  Under hypoxic conditions, the kidney will produce and secrete erythropoietin to increase the production of red blood cells.  Erythropoietin stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. A rise in red cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.  As the main source of red blood cell production, EPO’s major functions are to:
Promote the development of red blood cells.  Also to initiate the synthesis of hemoglobin, the molecule within red cells that transports oxygen.  This diagram from my textbook was a great tool for me to accomplish this objective.

Objective 41: Summarize Development and Maturation of B&T lymphocytes

I really did not grasp the concept of the B or T lymphocyte.  I will say that what I will always remember is where both of them matures because Mrs. Gess brought it up loads of times.  I could be sleeping and I would still here that the B lymphocytes matures in the bone marrow and the T lymphocytes mature in the thymus. During lecture I also understood that the lymphocytes protects our body from pathogens through humoral and cellular responses.  The video above helped me sort of grasp the B lymphocytes role.  The video below helped with the T lymphocytes.